Copper has been used in church art since Old Testament times. At the time of the prophet Moses, the altar with its equipment and most of the items in the Tabernacle were made of copper (Exodus). In Solomon's temple the two pillars were also of copper (1 Kings 7:15). Since ancient times, copper has been used to make weapons, shields and armor, as well as gates on fortifications – becoming a symbol of solidity and strength. Therefore, it was considered that copper objects have protective power and are capable of protecting human health and life. We can find confirmation of this in the Old Testament, where for the treatment of the Israelites who were bitten by poisonous snakes, Moses made a copper snake: "And Moses made a snake of brass, and put it on a pole, and whoever was bitten by a snake looked at the snake of brass, and get well". (Numbers 21.9). It is possible that, because of the copper Serpent that was mounted on a T-shaped pole, and which is mentioned in the Gospel as a prototype of the Cross of the Lord (Jn 3.14), most of the ancient crosses and encolpions are of the HI-HV period. century was made of copper. The cheapness of the material did not interfere with the connection with the sacred objects.
In the later period, many such crosses were invested in gold and silver reliquaries as the greatest valuables. Nowadays, in addition to crosses, lamps, censers, censers, choros, fittings for the Gospels, fittings for icons and much more are made from copper alloys. Copper objects may have a coating of silver or gold, in which case they carry the symbolism of the precious metals that they exchange in this case.
A tree, with roots deeply planted in the ground and branches reaching towards the sky, symbolizes the connection between the two worlds - earthly and heavenly - among many peoples. Ever known as the "tree of the world", the "tree of life" in many ancient religions was an object of worship, as the abode of deities. Among different peoples, different types of trees were sacred. Christianity followed Old Testament traditions: the Bible mentions three basic sacred trees: fir, elm and boxwood (cedar, cypress, palm). "The glory of Lebanon will come to you, the fir, the elm and the boxwood, to decorate the place of my sanctuary, so that you may glorify the place of your feet." — said the prophet Isaiah (Isaiah 60.13). According to tradition, these three types of wood, after growing together, served as the material for the Lord's Cross. The symbolic connection between the Holy Cross and the heavenly Tree of Life is noticeable. These types of wood possess exactly those qualities necessary for Christian symbolism. They are evergreen and long-lasting plants. Wood, as a material, is primarily symbolically linked to the Life-giving Holy Cross and with such a meaning widely accepted in the Church, so that objects made of it are given a special sacred significance. It is known that many wood-carved crosses, stavrotheques, panagias and icons are decorated with expensive gold and silver fittings with embedded precious stones. It is not necessary to emphasize that sacred scenes, carved in wood, are the main value of this type of goldsmith's carved object.
Cypress and pevg (a type of palm) are the most commonly used types of wood for making icons in shallow relief in the Eastern Church. In addition to its symbolic connection with the tree of the Holy Cross, the palm tree has been a symbol of victory since the earliest times. In Christianity, the palm tree is a symbol of spiritual victory, birth in the Spirit and Resurrection. We find confirmation of the indicated symbolism in the New Testament. These are the palm branches at the Lord's entrance into Jerusalem and the palm branches in the hands of the righteous who stood before the throne and the Lamb in Heavenly Jerusalem (Revelation 7.9).
Nowadays, the tradition of carving sacred scenes lives and develops. Monastic crosses, as well as pectoral crosses and panagias, are cut from wood.
Ivory has always been a precious material. In ancient Greece, magnificent statues of the gods (the works of Phidias and Polykletos) were made from slabs of ivory and gold, each weighing several tons. In Israel at the time of the Empire, ivory was used not only for small ornaments, but also in palace architecture and interior decoration (First Book of Kings. 10.18 and 22.39). In Christian art in the Late Antiquity and Medieval period, this material was used mainly for the production of small plastic. Numerous items from that period that were carved in ivory are known under one common name - avories (from the English word - ivory). These are carved icons, iconographic diptychs and triptychs, crosses, reliquaries, pyxidia (round boxes for keeping prosphora), etc.
Due to the properties of bone such as whiteness and hardness, it is a symbol of purity and strength of spirit. Its resistance to decay (incorruptibility) made the bone a symbol of holiness. Along with exceptional physical properties such as density and evenness, ivory is an ideal material for making miniature iconographic relief. Nowadays, the use of ivory is prohibited, so in Russia, skeletal remains of mammoths, which are often found in the Russian north, as well as walrus tusks, which Russians often call "fish teeth", are used for carving. As well as church objects made of wood and those made of bone can be equipped with expensive gold and silver fittings with precious stones.
MoP (mother of pearl)—the inner layer of the pearl shell—is another material used in church art. As the name suggests, its symbolic value is largely related to the pearl. The pearl shell reminds us of the Mother of God, whom the Holy Fathers compared to the shell that carries the Divine pearl. The artistic motif of the shell is widely used in church art, so it is often found in the arches and niches of Byzantine temples, sometimes with a cross inside, and in Russia on the wreaths of the Imperial Doors. On Byzantine ivories from the 6th century, halos above the heads of saints are often represented in the form of a shell. The shell often symbolized the sanctity and divine origin of imperial power.
As a material, mother-of-pearl, in terms of its formal similarity and connection with the pearl, can also carry its symbolism. The main value of the pearl consists in its representation of the Kingdom of Heaven. And as it is said in the Gospel according to Matthew: "...The Kingdom of Heaven is still like a merchant who seeks the goods of pearls." So when he found a pearl of great value, he went and sold everything he had and bought it" (Matthew 13:46). The twelve gates of the Heavenly Jerusalem, according to John the Theologian, "were each of one pearl" (Revelation 21.21). It is possible that the shell motif on the wreaths of the Imperial Doors largely indicates their symbolic connection with the pearly gates of the Heavenly City. Therefore, mother-of-pearl is a symbol of the Mother of God, the Incarnation, Holiness and the Kingdom of Heaven. With this meaning, in church art it is used for making crosses and icons as well as for large carved icons and throne crosses. From the 17th century to the present day, the traditional place of making mother-of-pearl relics is the Holy Land.
Mother of pearl is not only used as a carving material, but also as a decoration in small fragments. In this case, its symbolic meaning is the same as the small pearls that are arranged in rows on the shackles of icons and the Gospel, crosses, panagia and gold embroidery. These strings of pearls do not represent Christ himself or the Kingdom of Heaven, as is the case with one large pearl, but the word of God, the Gospel Truth. And as Christ said to the apostles: "Do not give the holy things to the dogs; nor cast your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under their feet, and turn and tear you to pieces" (Matthew 7.6). For example, the four pearls that are often found on the four arms of pectoral crosses represent the four Gospels.
As is the case with the perception of the symbolism of colors, when working with natural materials it is necessary to avoid a literal understanding of the symbolic meaning. All the more, since one material can have several meanings, both close in meaning and distant, and different materials can carry an identical or similar meaning. The spiritual meaning is revealed only in the context of the entire jewelry-goldsmith's work, taking into account its purpose, form, artistic solution, composition of materials and their cooperation in the overall composition.
The production of church jewelry can be compared to worship, where, instead of words, natural materials arranged in a specific melodic form are used, thus acquiring a special spiritual-aesthetic tone. In a more complex work, the harmony of different materials reminds one of the sequence and order in the liturgy, and in a simpler work a short prayer. However, in both cases, not only correct words and actions are important, but the striving of our heart towards Christ.
